Spying has been a practice of the U.S. government since its inception. Gathering intelligence is justified because it helps uncover malicious actions that could endanger the safety of Americans and people around the world. However, in many instances intelligence is gathered unlawfully on individuals who have no harmful intentions and in violation of Americans’ Fourth Amendment right to privacy. This explainer breaks down the various illegal spying practices the U.S. conducts and the reforms needed to ensure constitutional integrity.

Apprenticeships serve as a vital pathway to new careers and economic opportunities for working people. Congress may soon reauthorize the National Apprenticeship Act, which governs apprenticeships’ standards and regulation. Through reauthorization, Congress can strengthen standards that protect workers in training, create pathways to high-quality jobs, and bolster efforts to develop a well-trained workforce that can meet employers’ needs. This explainer breaks down the history and current Congressional landscape on apprenticeships.

CEO-worker pay gaps are a powerful driver of our country’s extreme economic inequality. Between 2009 and 2019, incomes for the richest 0.1 percent of Americans grew 3.5 times as fast as those for the bottom 90 percent of earners. CEOs dominate that top income tier, with average compensation in 2021 nearly eight times as high as wages for the top 0.1 percent, according to Economic Policy Institute analysis. As White House economic advisor Heather Boushey has said, inequality drags the nation’s economic growth. The concentration of income and wealth also leads to excessive political power in the hands of a privileged few.

Students are losing access to books as the wave of book censorship in the United States grows rapidly. When PEN America released its first report in 2021 tracking book bans in the U.S., findings showed that more than 4 million students had their freedom to read curtailed across 5,049 schools, 138 school districts, in 32 states. Since this report, findings from the 2022-23 school year recorded 3,362 book bans in U.S. public school classrooms and libraries, an increase of 33% in the last school year.

The U.S. government has shut down 21 times throughout its 247-year history. Just four of those 21 shutdowns have lasted more than two weeks, and half of those two-week-plus shutdowns—including the longest shutdown ever—occurred in the past decade. These shutdowns share a key characteristic: Republicans’ demands were unpopular with the American public and, ultimately, the shutdown ended in a deal that did not meet those demands. As our analysis below shows, Democrats did not agree to the GOP’s unpopular policy demands in exchange for reopening the government in either case, and their position prevailed—even when Republicans controlled Congress and the White House. Additionally, the public placed the brunt of the blame for both shutdowns on Republicans.

As the summer Congressional recess comes to an end and lawmakers return to Washington, D.C. in September, there are a number of foreign policy legislative matters to attend to. This explainer outlines legislation Congress needs to address in September 2023. However, it is possible that these bills will not be considered in September and addressed later in the year. This is explained in more detail below, specific to each legislation. Additionally, this list is not exhaustive and other legislative actions could come up, especially in response to current events.

Every year, Congress funds federal government agencies and programs through the annual appropriations process. As part of this process, Congress assigns funding to various immigration-related agencies and programs. These funding decisions underscore the differences among the House, Senate, and White House’s immigration priorities. This explainer highlights those differences related to two key immigration issues in the Fiscal Year (FY) 2024 appropriations process: immigration enforcement and refugee assistance. This explainer also details the human impact that immigration funding has on real families. For a comprehensive look at the FY 2024 appropriations process, check out From Programs to People: The FY2024 Appropriations Process.

The National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) is annual legislation that authorizes funding and sets policies for the Department of Defense (DOD), nuclear programs at the Department of Energy (DOE), and other defense activities at other federal agencies. Unlike an appropriations bill, the NDAA does not give the Pentagon any money. The House of Representatives Fiscal Year (FY) 2024 NDAA is the first under new Republican leadership since 2018. The right-wing faction of the Republican Conference, the House Freedom Caucus, heavily influenced the NDAA’s content, using the bill as a vehicle to advance their ideological priorities and domestic agenda.

At the time of this writing, both the House and Senate have completed consideration of each chamber’s NDAA. Conference (explained below), which has yet to be announced at the time of this publication, will reconcile the differences between the two bills. This explainer overviews key developments and policies passed in each chamber’s NDAA.

Congress is determining how the federal government will spend—or “appropriate”—its money in the coming year. The Fiscal Year (FY) 2024 appropriations debate occurs as states build a patchwork of abortion policies in the post-Roe v. Wade environment; the conflict in Ukraine continues; and Americans cope with climate change-related natural disasters, among other issues. It also marks the first year that appropriations will be subject to spending caps mandated by the Fiscal Responsibility Act (Public Law 118-5), which limits federal spending while suspending the debt limit. This explainer describes the appropriations process taking shape for FY2024, key changes to that process this year, and the impact lawmakers’ spending decisions may have on the public.

The government shuts down when Congress fails to pass legislation known as “appropriations” bills, which fund federal agencies like the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and programs like the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). Appropriations bills typically fund the government through the end of each fiscal year (September 30). If a new appropriations bill has not been signed into law by that expiration date, Congress must pass a stopgap measure known as a “continuing resolution” (CR) to fund the government at current spending levels. For example, if a CR were to pass this year, it would fund the government at Fiscal Year (FY) 2023 levels. Without a new appropriations bill or a CR, the government shuts down.

Widespread access to firearms is a growing problem in the U.S., with the majority of Americans viewing gun violence as a “very big problem” in the country today. More children die by gunfire in a year than on-duty police officers and active military members. Trends in gun sales indicate gun purchases spiked at the height of the pandemic, with one in five U.S. households buying a gun from March 2020 to March 2022 and one in 20 Americans purchasing a gun for the first time. Despite the rise in gun ownership and gun deaths, minimal efforts in Congress have been implemented to curb gun violence.

However, in June 2022, President Biden signed the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act (BSCA) into law (P.L. 117-159). While this law has not dramatically curbed gun violence, it does include provisions related to enhancing access to mental health services, expanding firearm purchasing requirements and background checks for young adults, strengthening certain licensing requirements and gun trafficking provisions, and allocating additional funds to support crisis response, school-based mental health, and suicide prevention.

At the end of 2022, Congress passed the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), a historic investment in renewable energy. This bill is a once-in-a-generation opportunity to transition toward publicly-owned, sustainable energy. The IRA is a critical engine for creating good-paying jobs and economic activity in the United States. A recent study from the University of Massachusetts Amherst found that the IRA will create 9 million good-paying jobs over the next decade, including 6 million generated through grants, loans, and tax credit provisions.

For the first time ever, public agencies can claim sustainable energy tax credits under the “Direct Pay” Program (Direct Pay and Elective Pay are sometimes used interchangeably). This means that eligible entities like cities, states, and other tax-exempt organizations will receive tax-free, cash payments from the IRS for sustainable energy projects as long as all requirements are met.

Moreover, any eligible entity that applies for a Direct Pay tax credit with an eligible project should be approved. By increasing access to these credits, Direct Pay will help build sustainable energy infrastructure and create good-paying jobs.

The 303 Creative LLC v. Elenis case concerned a challenge to the Colorado Anti-Discrimination Act (CADA) brought by 303 Creative LLC, a graphic design firm, and its owner, Lorie Smith. CADA is a Colorado law that prohibits businesses open to the public from discriminating based on various protected characteristics, including sexual orientation. Smith argued that CADA violated her First Amendment rights to free speech and religious freedom by compelling her to create websites for same-sex weddings and preventing her from communicating her intent to discriminate against same-sex couples on her website.

One of the most important indicators of priorities in Congress is the ideological composition of members assigned to sit on committees. Congressional committees are where members debate and modify bills, provide oversight and accountability over various government agencies, and much more. The ideological composition of committees is a significant matter when it comes to passing legislation that the full House or Senate will consider. Committee members affiliated with certain ideological caucuses advocate for issues such as universal childcare, Medicare for all, and less U.S. militarism around the world. In contrast, other ideological caucuses may not support investment in social needs, but do support continued increases in military spending, which siphons resources from real human needs. This explainer compares the ideological composition of the various foreign policy committees in the U.S. House of Representatives during the 117th Congress to the current 118th Congress.

On May 28, 2023, the White House and House Republican Leadership released the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023, legislation to suspend the debt limit until January 1, 2025. While the bill prevents a default on the U.S. debt for nearly two years, it also cuts funding for non-defense programs, doubles down on onerous and unnecessary work requirements on families under the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF); claws back funds intended to catch wealthy tax evaders; and weakens environmental protections.

This explainer details key provisions in the bill, but is not exhaustive.

Recently, stakeholders inside and outside Congress have encouraged President Joe Biden to avoid a looming default on the United States’ debt by invoking the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Section 4 of the 14th Amendment states: “The validity of the public debt of the United States…shall not be questioned.” Some experts argue that this clause allows the president to prevent default by ignoring the debt ceiling and continuing to fulfill the country’s financial obligations.

On May 2, 2023, House Democratic Leader Hakeem Jeffries announced that House Democrats would attempt to address the debt ceiling through a “discharge petition.” The Speaker of the House ordinarily schedules House votes. A discharge petition is a parliamentary tool that lets a majority of House members (218) force a vote.

On April 19, 2023, Speaker of the House, Kevin McCarthy, unveiled the Republican proposal to raise the debt limit. The Limit, Save, Grow Act of 2023 would raise the debt limit by $1.5 trillion, or suspend it until March 31, 2024, whichever occurs first. The bill also cuts federal programs and services, blocks student debt relief, adds onerous and unnecessary work requirements to Medicaid and SNAP that take food assistance and health care from families, rescinds unspent COVID aid, and repeals parts of the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA). The House passed the bill on April 26, 2023 by a 217-215 vote.

The debt ceiling is a statutory limit Congress places on the total debt the federal government can incur. For decades, Congress has repeatedly increased the debt limit so the U.S. does not default on—that is, fail to pay—its debts. However, in recent years, some lawmakers have used debt ceiling negotiations as leverage to force federal budget cuts that harm vulnerable communities. This explainer describes the manufactured connection between the debt ceiling and spending cuts.

On September 8th, the Department of Justice (DOJ) petitioned the Supreme Court to review Alliance for Hippocratic Medicine v. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (AHM v. FDA). At issue, is the FDA’s 23-year-old approval of mifepristone— the first of two medications used for an abortion. In early April, a Trump-appointed U.S. District judge’s ruling halted approval of mifepristone. After subsequent appeals to higher courts, the case now rests in the hands of the U.S Supreme Court, who will decide whether to take up the case in their 2023-24 term that begins in October. For now, the FDA’s approval and guidelines for mifepristone remain unchanged.

For over 80 years, Congress has placed a cap on the total debt the federal government can take on, which is known as the “debt ceiling.” Since the debt ceiling’s genesis in 1939, Congress has altered that limit hundreds of times to ensure the United States does not “default” on—that is, fail to pay—its debts. A default would prompt a global economic crisis, the effects of which would be devastating for American families. Congress last raised the debt ceiling in December 2021 when, after lengthy negotiations, lawmakers raised the limit by $2.5 trillion to just under $31.4 trillion, where it currently sits.

This explainer explores the Biden administration’s use of various executive actions — such as executive orders, memoranda, and statements — as policy tools. This explainer also documents a short list of transformative, EAs enacted during the first two years of President Biden’s term. The last part of this explainer lays out a platform of potential EAs across a range of issue areas that the Biden Administration could act on during the remainder of his term.

Article 1, Section 8, Clause 11 of the United States Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war and authorize the deployment of U.S. armed forces and military operations. However, past presidents have repeatedly conducted military activities without express authorization from Congress, known formally as an Authorization for the Use of Military Force (AUMF). This explainer examines the various AUMFs still in effect and specifically addresses the Iraq war AUMFs of 1991 and 2002.

On March 9, 2023, President Biden released his budget request for Fiscal Year (FY) 2024. The president’s annual budget request to Congress outlines funding for the various federal agencies and conveys the Administration’s priorities. The president’s proposal also offers guidance to Congress as members draft spending bills for the upcoming fiscal year. Ultimately, the president’s budget proposal is just that: a proposal. Congress has the final say and can adopt or amend the president’s numbers through the annual appropriations process. This explainer will focus on President Biden’s request for defense spending for FY2024.

In 2014, Russia invaded eastern Ukraine and illegally annexed Crimea. While violence in Ukraine decreased in the aftermath of this 2014 invasion, the Ukrainian people were again invaded by Russia on February 24, 2022, in what President Biden called an “unprovoked and unjustified” war. Since the beginning of the war in 2022, the U.S. has sent considerable aid to Ukraine, most of it taking the form of military aid, while also providing economic and humanitarian aid. This explainer breaks down all the federal funds the U.S. has sent to Ukraine since the war began in 2022.

Every year, Congress passes appropriations bills to fund the government. Appropriations bills fund the discretionary portions of the federal budget, such as education, defense, and housing. As a result, the appropriations process impacts nearly every federal department and agency. On top of that, states, cities, and counties rely on federal funding to carry out community projects and programs like Head Start, bridge and highway renovations, public health efforts, and more.

The House of Representatives’ rules play a crucial role in the legislative process. They determine how business is conducted in the chamber and ensure order during debates and voting. Typically, on the first day of each Congress, lawmakers in the House vote to adopt a rules package so the chamber can carry out its constitutional responsibilities effectively. Changes to the House’s rules can impact the issues Congress focuses on, which voices are amplified or diminished, and even shape legislation itself.

This explainer breaks down some of the most significant House rules changes for the 118th Congress. It is not exhaustive and intended only to provide a basic understanding of critical issues raised in the House rules for this Congress. Additionally, this explainer does not detail what Punchbowl News described on January 9 as a "secret three-page addendum" to the official House rules. Reporting suggests that this addendum may contain important details regarding House operations changes that Speaker Kevin McCarthy agreed to as part of his speakership bid. However, there is no public addendum as of January 10, 2023.